A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning: Part III: meteorological forcing, thin layer formation and evaluation

• Published in: Cold regions science and technology Vol. 35; no. 3; pp. 169 - 184
• Main Authors: Lehning, Michael, Bartelt, Perry, Brown, Bob, Fierz, Charles
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Amsterdam Elsevier B.V 01.11.2002; Elsevier
• Subjects: Critical layer; Earth, ocean, space; Exact sciences and technology; External geophysics; Snow. Ice. Glaciers; Surface exchange; Surface hoar; Turbulent fluxes; Ventilation; Switzerland; Europe; Turbulent fluxes; Ventilation; Surface exchange; Surface hoar; Critical layer; Grain size; Latent heat; Sensible heat; Atmospheric condition; Roughness length; Surface layer; Wind effect; Drifting snow; Parameterization; Algorithm; Avalanche; Mass transfer; Albedo; Pumping; Physical model; Statistical model; Water content; Thermal conductivity; Density function; Snow cover; Forcing; Surface energy; Freeze; Heat transfer
• ISSN: 0165-232X; 1872-7441
• DOI: 10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00072-1

The development of the seasonal snow cover is entirely driven by atmospheric forcing. SNOWPACK uses measured snow depths to determine snow precipitation rates via the calculated settling rates. This requires a rigid data control algorithm. A new statistical model is used to estimate fresh snow density as a function of the measured atmospheric conditions. A statistical model is also derived for the snow albedo, which is necessary to determine the absorbed radiation. The surface sensible and latent heat flux parameterizations are derived from Monin–Obukhov similarity and include a formulation for wind pumping. The formulations will also adapt to drifting snow conditions. The new suggestion is consistent with the observation of different roughness lengths for scalars and momentum over snow. An accurate formulation, especially for the latent heat exchange, is crucial because latent heat exchange determines the formation of surface hoar, a very important weak layer. We also account for the effect of wind pumping on the thermal conductivity in the uppermost snow layers. The surface energy and mass exchange formulations are evaluated by looking at the formation of the important thin layers surface hoar and melt–freeze crusts in SNOWPACK. Those layers are well simulated. In addition, the complete snow profile development is modeled successfully for the parameters grain type, temperature, density, grain size and liquid water content. An overall score between 0 and 1 is used to describe the profile agreement with observations and an average score of over 0.8 is reached.