Assessment of in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of chloroquine against chikungunya virus in vero cells
The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vi...
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| Published in | Journal of medical virology Vol. 82; no. 5; pp. 817 - 824 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Hoboken
Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company
01.05.2010
Wiley |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 0146-6615 1096-9071 1096-9071 |
| DOI | 10.1002/jmv.21663 |
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| Abstract | The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre-infection, post-infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose-dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5-20 μM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by ≥99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1-3 hr post-infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal-mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent. J. Med. Virol. 82: 817-824, 2010. |
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| AbstractList | The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre-infection, post-infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose-dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5-20 µM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by ¥99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1-3 hr post-infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal-mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent. J. Med. Virol. 82: 817-824, 2010. The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre‐infection, post‐infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real‐time reverse transcriptase (RT)‐PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose‐dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5–20 µM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by ≥99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1–3 hr post‐infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal‐mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent. J. Med. Virol. 82: 817–824, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre-infection, post-infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose-dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5-20 μM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by ≥99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1-3 hr post-infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal-mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent. J. Med. Virol. 82: 817-824, 2010. The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre-infection, post-infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose-dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5-20 microM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by >/=99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1-3 hr post-infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal-mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent.The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre-infection, post-infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose-dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5-20 microM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by >/=99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1-3 hr post-infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal-mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent. The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years is a major public health concern. Currently, there is no specific therapy available to treat CHIKV infection. In the present study, the in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic effects of chloroquine on CHIKV replication in Vero cells were investigated. Inhibitory effects were observed when chloroquine was administered pre-infection, post-infection, and concurrent with infection, suggesting that chloroquine has prophylactic and therapeutic potential. The inhibitory effects were confirmed by performing a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), real-time reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR analysis of viral RNA levels, and cell viability assays. Chloroquine diminished CHIKV infection in a dose-dependent manner, with an effective concentration range of 5-20 microM. Concurrent addition of drug with virus, or treatment of cells prior to infection drastically reduced virus infectivity and viral genome copy number by >/=99.99%. The maximum inhibitory effect of chloroquine was observed within 1-3 hr post-infection (hpi), and treatment was ineffective once the virus successfully passed through the early stages of infection. The mechanism of inhibition of virus activity by chloroquine involved impaired endosomal-mediated virus entry during early stages of virus replication, most likely through the prevention of endocytosis and/or endosomal acidification, based on a comparative evaluation using ammonium chloride, a known lysosomotropic agent. |
| Author | Santhosh, S.R. Parida, Manmohan Khan, Mohsin Tiwari, Mugdha Lakshmana Rao, P.V. |
| AuthorAffiliation | 1 Division of Virology, Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE), Gwalior, MP, India |
| AuthorAffiliation_xml | – name: 1 Division of Virology, Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE), Gwalior, MP, India |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 fullname: Khan, Mohsin – sequence: 2 fullname: Santhosh, S.R – sequence: 3 fullname: Tiwari, Mugdha – sequence: 4 fullname: Lakshmana Rao, P.V – sequence: 5 fullname: Parida, Manmohan |
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| Copyright | Copyright © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. 2015 INIST-CNRS (c) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. |
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| Keywords | Antimalarial Chloroquine Togaviridae virus inhibition In vitro Infection Virus Prevention Efficiency Viral disease Arbovirus disease Chikungunya virus Chikungunya Alphavirus Parasiticide Antirheumatic agent |
| Language | English |
| License | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor CC BY 4.0 (c) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. This article is being made freely available through PubMed Central as part of the COVID-19 public health emergency response. It can be used for unrestricted research re-use and analysis in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source, for the duration of the public health emergency. |
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| References | Finter NB. 1969. Dye uptake methods for assessing viral cytopathogenicity and their application to interferon assays. J Gen Virol 5: 419-427. Savarino A, Trani LD, Donatelli I, Cauda R, Cassone A. 2006. New insights into the antiviral effects of Chloroquine. Lancet Infect Dis 6: 67-69. Pialoux G, Gauzere BA, Jaureguiberry S, Strobel M. 2007. Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect Dis 7: 319-327. Schuffenecker I, Iteman I, Michault A, Murri S, Frangeul L, Vaney MC, Lavenir R, Pardigon N, Reynes JM, Pettinelli F, Biscornet L, Diancourt L, Michel S, Duquerroy S, Guigon G, Frenkiel MP, Bréhin AC, Cubito N, Desprès P, Kunst F, Rey FA, Zeller H, Brisse S. 2006. Genome microevolution of chikungunya viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak. PLoS Med 3: e263. Cassell S, Edwards J, Brown DT. 1984. Effects of lysosomotropic weak bases on infection of BHK-21 cells by Sindbis virus. J Virol 52: 857-864. Kouroumalis EA, Koskinas J. 1986. Treatment of chronic active hepatitis B (CAH B) with Chloroquine: A preliminary report. Ann Acad Med Singapore 15: 149-152. Savarino A. 2005. Expanding the frontiers of existing antiviral drugs: Possible effects of HIV-1 protease inhibitors against SARS and avian influenza. J Clin Virol 34: 170-178. Sourisseau M, Schilte C, Casartelli N, Trouillet C, Guivel-Benhassine F, Rudnicka D, Sol-Foulon N, Roux KL, Prevost MC, Fsihi H, Frenkiel MP, Blanchet F, Afonso PV, Ceccaldi PE, Ozden S, Gessain A, Schuffenecker I, Verhasselt B, Zamborlini A, Saïb A, Rey FA, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, Desprès P, Michault A, Albert ML, Schwartz O. 2007. Characterization of reemerging chikungunya virus. PLoS Pathog 3: e89. Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Seidah NG, Nichol ST. 2005. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J 2: 69. Santhosh SR, Dash PK, Parida MM, Khan M, Tiwari M, Lakshmana Rao PV. 2008. Comparative full genome analysis revealed A226V shift in 2007 Indian Chikungunya virus isolates. Virus Res 135: 36-41. Dash PK, Tiwari M, Santhosh SR, Parida M, Lakshmana Rao PV. 2008. RNA interference mediated inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication in mammalian cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 376: 718-722. Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. 2003. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: An old drug against today's diseases? Lancet Infect Dis 3: 722-727. Santhosh SR, Parida MM, Dash PK, Pateriya A, Pattnaik B, Pradhan HK, Tripathi NK, Srivastava A, Gupta N, Saxena P, Lakshmana Rao PV. 2007. Development and evaluation of SYBR Green I based one step real time RT-PCR assay for detection and quantification of Chikungunya virus. J Clin Virol 39: 188-193. Mavalankar D, Shastri P, Raman P. 2007. Chikungunya epidemic in India: A major public-health disaster. Lancet Infect Dis 7: 306-307. Tsai WP, Nara PL, Kung HF, Oroszlan S. 1990. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus infectivity by chloroquine. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 6: 481-489. Dash PK, Parida MM, Santhosh SR, Verma SK, Tripathi NK, Ambuj S, Saxena P, Gupta N, Chaudhary M, Babu JP, Lakshmi V, Mamidi N, Subhalaxmi MV, Lakshmana Rao PV, Sekhar K. 2007. East Central South African genotype as the causative agent in reemergence of Chikungunya outbreak in India. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 7: 519-527. Charmot G, Coulaud JP. 1990. Treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Africa (except cerebral malaria). MedTrop 50: 103-108. Keyaerts E, Vijgen L, Maes P, Neyts J, Van Ranst M. 2004. In vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by Chloroquine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 323: 264-268. Rezza G, Nicoletti L, Angelini R, Romi R, Finarelli AC, Panning M, Cordioli P, Fortuna C, Boros S, Magurano F, Silvi G, Angelini P, Dottori M, Ciufolini MG, Majori GC, Cassone A. 2007. Infection with Chikungunya virus in Italy: An outbreak in a temperate region. Lancet 370: 1840-1846. Charell RN, de Lamballrie X, Raoult D. 2007. Chikungunya outbreaks-the globalization of vector borne diseases. N Engl J Med 356: 769-771. Gilbert BE, Knight V. 1986. Biochemistry and clinical application of ribavirin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30: 201-205. DeTulleo L, Kirchhausen T. 1998. The clathrin endocytic pathway in viral infection. EMBO J 17: 4585-4593. 2007; 356 2007; 39 1984; 52 1998; 17 2004; 323 1986; 30 2007; 370 1969; 5 1986; 15 1998 2003; 3 2007; 7 2006; 6 2006; 3 2008; 135 2007; 3 2005; 2 2008; 376 2005; 34 1990; 6 1990; 50 Charmot G (e_1_2_1_4_1) 1990; 50 Jupp PG (e_1_2_1_10_1) 1998 e_1_2_1_7_1 e_1_2_1_8_1 e_1_2_1_20_1 e_1_2_1_5_1 Kouroumalis EA (e_1_2_1_12_1) 1986; 15 e_1_2_1_6_1 Cassell S (e_1_2_1_2_1) 1984; 52 e_1_2_1_3_1 e_1_2_1_23_1 e_1_2_1_13_1 e_1_2_1_24_1 e_1_2_1_21_1 e_1_2_1_11_1 e_1_2_1_22_1 e_1_2_1_16_1 e_1_2_1_17_1 e_1_2_1_14_1 e_1_2_1_15_1 e_1_2_1_9_1 e_1_2_1_18_1 e_1_2_1_19_1 21503920 - J Med Virol. 2011 Jun;83(6):1058-9 |
| References_xml | – reference: Dash PK, Parida MM, Santhosh SR, Verma SK, Tripathi NK, Ambuj S, Saxena P, Gupta N, Chaudhary M, Babu JP, Lakshmi V, Mamidi N, Subhalaxmi MV, Lakshmana Rao PV, Sekhar K. 2007. East Central South African genotype as the causative agent in reemergence of Chikungunya outbreak in India. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 7: 519-527. – reference: Santhosh SR, Parida MM, Dash PK, Pateriya A, Pattnaik B, Pradhan HK, Tripathi NK, Srivastava A, Gupta N, Saxena P, Lakshmana Rao PV. 2007. Development and evaluation of SYBR Green I based one step real time RT-PCR assay for detection and quantification of Chikungunya virus. J Clin Virol 39: 188-193. – reference: Schuffenecker I, Iteman I, Michault A, Murri S, Frangeul L, Vaney MC, Lavenir R, Pardigon N, Reynes JM, Pettinelli F, Biscornet L, Diancourt L, Michel S, Duquerroy S, Guigon G, Frenkiel MP, Bréhin AC, Cubito N, Desprès P, Kunst F, Rey FA, Zeller H, Brisse S. 2006. Genome microevolution of chikungunya viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak. PLoS Med 3: e263. – reference: Gilbert BE, Knight V. 1986. Biochemistry and clinical application of ribavirin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30: 201-205. – reference: Keyaerts E, Vijgen L, Maes P, Neyts J, Van Ranst M. 2004. In vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by Chloroquine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 323: 264-268. – reference: Dash PK, Tiwari M, Santhosh SR, Parida M, Lakshmana Rao PV. 2008. RNA interference mediated inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication in mammalian cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 376: 718-722. – reference: Mavalankar D, Shastri P, Raman P. 2007. Chikungunya epidemic in India: A major public-health disaster. Lancet Infect Dis 7: 306-307. – reference: DeTulleo L, Kirchhausen T. 1998. The clathrin endocytic pathway in viral infection. EMBO J 17: 4585-4593. – reference: Savarino A, Trani LD, Donatelli I, Cauda R, Cassone A. 2006. New insights into the antiviral effects of Chloroquine. Lancet Infect Dis 6: 67-69. – reference: Charmot G, Coulaud JP. 1990. Treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Africa (except cerebral malaria). MedTrop 50: 103-108. – reference: Cassell S, Edwards J, Brown DT. 1984. Effects of lysosomotropic weak bases on infection of BHK-21 cells by Sindbis virus. J Virol 52: 857-864. – reference: Pialoux G, Gauzere BA, Jaureguiberry S, Strobel M. 2007. Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect Dis 7: 319-327. – reference: Savarino A, Boelaert JR, Cassone A, Majori G, Cauda R. 2003. Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: An old drug against today's diseases? Lancet Infect Dis 3: 722-727. – reference: Kouroumalis EA, Koskinas J. 1986. Treatment of chronic active hepatitis B (CAH B) with Chloroquine: A preliminary report. Ann Acad Med Singapore 15: 149-152. – reference: Santhosh SR, Dash PK, Parida MM, Khan M, Tiwari M, Lakshmana Rao PV. 2008. Comparative full genome analysis revealed A226V shift in 2007 Indian Chikungunya virus isolates. Virus Res 135: 36-41. – reference: Tsai WP, Nara PL, Kung HF, Oroszlan S. 1990. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus infectivity by chloroquine. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 6: 481-489. – reference: Finter NB. 1969. Dye uptake methods for assessing viral cytopathogenicity and their application to interferon assays. J Gen Virol 5: 419-427. – reference: Savarino A. 2005. Expanding the frontiers of existing antiviral drugs: Possible effects of HIV-1 protease inhibitors against SARS and avian influenza. J Clin Virol 34: 170-178. – reference: Charell RN, de Lamballrie X, Raoult D. 2007. Chikungunya outbreaks-the globalization of vector borne diseases. N Engl J Med 356: 769-771. – reference: Sourisseau M, Schilte C, Casartelli N, Trouillet C, Guivel-Benhassine F, Rudnicka D, Sol-Foulon N, Roux KL, Prevost MC, Fsihi H, Frenkiel MP, Blanchet F, Afonso PV, Ceccaldi PE, Ozden S, Gessain A, Schuffenecker I, Verhasselt B, Zamborlini A, Saïb A, Rey FA, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, Desprès P, Michault A, Albert ML, Schwartz O. 2007. Characterization of reemerging chikungunya virus. PLoS Pathog 3: e89. – reference: Rezza G, Nicoletti L, Angelini R, Romi R, Finarelli AC, Panning M, Cordioli P, Fortuna C, Boros S, Magurano F, Silvi G, Angelini P, Dottori M, Ciufolini MG, Majori GC, Cassone A. 2007. Infection with Chikungunya virus in Italy: An outbreak in a temperate region. Lancet 370: 1840-1846. – reference: Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Seidah NG, Nichol ST. 2005. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol J 2: 69. – volume: 15 start-page: 149 year: 1986 end-page: 152 article-title: Treatment of chronic active hepatitis B (CAH B) with Chloroquine: A preliminary report publication-title: Ann Acad Med Singapore – volume: 30 start-page: 201 year: 1986 end-page: 205 article-title: Biochemistry and clinical application of ribavirin publication-title: Antimicrob Agents Chemother – start-page: 137 year: 1998 end-page: 157 – volume: 2 start-page: 69 year: 2005 article-title: Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread publication-title: Virol J – volume: 3 start-page: e89 year: 2007 article-title: Characterization of reemerging chikungunya virus publication-title: PLoS Pathog – volume: 376 start-page: 718 year: 2008 end-page: 722 article-title: RNA interference mediated inhibition of Chikungunya virus replication in mammalian cells publication-title: Biochem Biophys Res Commun – volume: 323 start-page: 264 year: 2004 end-page: 268 article-title: inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by Chloroquine publication-title: Biochem Biophys Res Commun – volume: 17 start-page: 4585 year: 1998 end-page: 4593 article-title: The clathrin endocytic pathway in viral infection publication-title: EMBO J – volume: 7 start-page: 319 year: 2007 end-page: 327 article-title: Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis publication-title: Lancet Infect Dis – volume: 135 start-page: 36 year: 2008 end-page: 41 article-title: Comparative full genome analysis revealed A226V shift in 2007 Indian Chikungunya virus isolates publication-title: Virus Res – volume: 6 start-page: 481 year: 1990 end-page: 489 article-title: Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus infectivity by chloroquine publication-title: AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses – volume: 356 start-page: 769 year: 2007 end-page: 771 article-title: Chikungunya outbreaks‐the globalization of vector borne diseases publication-title: N Engl J Med – volume: 7 start-page: 519 year: 2007 end-page: 527 article-title: East Central South African genotype as the causative agent in reemergence of Chikungunya outbreak in India publication-title: Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis – volume: 3 start-page: e263 year: 2006 article-title: Genome microevolution of chikungunya viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak publication-title: PLoS Med – volume: 50 start-page: 103 year: 1990 end-page: 108 article-title: Treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Africa (except cerebral malaria) publication-title: MedTrop – volume: 5 start-page: 419 year: 1969 end-page: 427 article-title: Dye uptake methods for assessing viral cytopathogenicity and their application to interferon assays publication-title: J Gen Virol – volume: 39 start-page: 188 year: 2007 end-page: 193 article-title: Development and evaluation of SYBR Green I based one step real time RT‐PCR assay for detection and quantification of Chikungunya virus publication-title: J Clin Virol – volume: 370 start-page: 1840 year: 2007 end-page: 1846 article-title: Infection with Chikungunya virus in Italy: An outbreak in a temperate region publication-title: Lancet – volume: 7 start-page: 306 year: 2007 end-page: 307 article-title: Chikungunya epidemic in India: A major public‐health disaster publication-title: Lancet Infect Dis – volume: 6 start-page: 67 year: 2006 end-page: 69 article-title: New insights into the antiviral effects of Chloroquine publication-title: Lancet Infect Dis – volume: 34 start-page: 170 year: 2005 end-page: 178 article-title: Expanding the frontiers of existing antiviral drugs: Possible effects of HIV‐1 protease inhibitors against SARS and avian influenza publication-title: J Clin Virol – volume: 3 start-page: 722 year: 2003 end-page: 727 article-title: Effects of chloroquine on viral infections: An old drug against today's diseases? 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| Snippet | The resurgence of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) in the form of unprecedented and explosive epidemics in India and the Indian Ocean islands after a gap of 32 years... |
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| SubjectTerms | Animals Antiviral Agents - pharmacology Biological and medical sciences Cell Survival Chikungunya Chikungunya virus - drug effects Chlorocebus aethiops chloroquine Chloroquine - pharmacology Fundamental and applied biological sciences. Psychology Human viral diseases Infectious diseases Medical sciences Microbiology Miscellaneous Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction RNA, Viral - biosynthesis Vero Cells Viral diseases Viral Plaque Assay Virology virus inhibition Virus Internalization - drug effects Virus Replication - drug effects |
| Title | Assessment of in vitro prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of chloroquine against chikungunya virus in vero cells |
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