Children with screening-detected coeliac disease show increased levels of nitric oxide products in urine
Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD...
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| Published in | Acta Paediatrica Vol. 100; no. 7; pp. 1023 - 1027 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , , , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Oxford, UK
Blackwell Publishing Ltd
01.07.2011
Blackwell Wiley Subscription Services, Inc |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 0803-5253 1651-2227 1651-2227 |
| DOI | 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02186.x |
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| Abstract | Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening‐detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern.
Methods: In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12‐year‐old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti‐human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody‐positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening‐detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied.
Results: The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening‐detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001).
Conclusion: Children with screening‐detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. |
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| AbstractList | Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening-detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern. Methods: In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12-year-old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti-human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody-positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening-detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied. Results: The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening-detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p andlt; 0.001). Conclusion: Children with screening-detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening-detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern. Methods: In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12-year-old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti-human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody-positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening-detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied. Results: The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening-detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Children with screening-detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT] Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening-detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern.AIMIncreased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening-detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern.In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12-year-old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti-human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody-positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening-detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied.METHODSIn a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12-year-old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti-human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody-positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening-detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied.The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening-detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001).RESULTSThe nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening-detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001). Children with screening-detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance.CONCLUSION Children with screening-detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening‐detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern. Methods: In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12‐year‐old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti‐human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody‐positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening‐detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied. Results: The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening‐detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Children with screening‐detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening-detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern. In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12-year-old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti-human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody-positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening-detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied. The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening-detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001). Children with screening-detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening‐detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern. Methods: In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12‐year‐old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti‐human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody‐positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening‐detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied. Results: The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening‐detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Children with screening‐detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation, which is a hallmark of the enteropathy of coeliac disease (CD). It has previously been shown that children with symptomatic, untreated CD have increased levels of NO oxidation products in their urine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether screening-detected, asymptomatic coeliac children display the same urinary nitrite/nitrate pattern. Methods: In a multicenter screening study, serum samples were collected from 7208 12-year-old children without previously diagnosed CD. Sera were analysed for anti-human tissue transglutaminase (tTG) of isotype IgA. Small bowel biopsy was performed in antibody-positive children, yielding 153 new cases of CD. In the screening-detected individuals, the sum of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the urine was analysed and used as an indicator of NO production. For comparison, 73 children with untreated, symptomatic CD were studied. Results: The nitrite/nitrate levels in children with screening-detected CD and those with untreated symptomatic CD did not differ significantly. Both groups had significantly increased urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations compared to the children with normal small bowel biopsy (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Children with screening-detected CD have increased production of NO just as children with untreated symptomatic CD. High NO metabolite levels in the urine may indicate a pathogenetic feature of CD and be a marker of major clinical importance. |
| Author | Sundqvist, T Högberg, L Forslund, T Danielsson, L Magnusson, K-E Webb, C Fälth-Magnusson, K Ivarsson, A Sandström, O |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: L surname: Högberg fullname: Högberg, L organization: Pediatric Clinic, Norrköping Hospital, Norrköping, Sweden – sequence: 2 givenname: C surname: Webb fullname: Webb, C organization: Department of Pediatrics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden – sequence: 3 givenname: K surname: Fälth-Magnusson fullname: Fälth-Magnusson, K organization: Division of Pediatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden – sequence: 4 givenname: T surname: Forslund fullname: Forslund, T organization: Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden – sequence: 5 givenname: K-E surname: Magnusson fullname: Magnusson, K-E organization: Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden – sequence: 6 givenname: L surname: Danielsson fullname: Danielsson, L organization: Pediatric Outpatient Clinic, Norrtälje Hospital, Norrtälje, Sweden – sequence: 7 givenname: A surname: Ivarsson fullname: Ivarsson, A organization: Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Epidemiology and Public Health Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden – sequence: 8 givenname: O surname: Sandström fullname: Sandström, O organization: Department of Clinical Sciences, Pediatrics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden – sequence: 9 givenname: T surname: Sundqvist fullname: Sundqvist, T organization: Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden |
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| Keywords | Human Urine Immunopathology Pediatrics Nitrites Nitrates Medical screening Coeliac disease Screening Intestinal malabsorption Nitric oxide Digestive diseases Intestinal disease Child Urinary nitrite/nitrate |
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Children with celiac disease express inducible nitric oxide synthase in the small intestine during gluten challenge. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998; 33: 939-43. – reference: van Straaten E, Koster-Kamphuis L, Bovee-Oudenhoven I, van der Meer R, Forget P-P. Increased urinary nitric oxide oxidation products in children with active coeliac disease. Acta Paediatr 1999; 88: 528-31. – reference: Webb C, Halvarsson B, Norström F, Myléus A, Carlsson A, Danielsson L, et al. Accuracy in celiac diagnostics by controlling the small bowel biopsy process. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2011; [Epub ahead of print] Accepted for publication – reference: Verdon CP, Burton BA, Prior RL. Sample pre-treatment with nitrate reductase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase quantitatively reduces nitrate while avoiding interference by NADP+ when the Griess reaction is used to assay for nitrite. Anal Biochem 1995; 224: 502-8. – reference: Stenberg P, Roth EB, Sjöberg K. 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J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009; 49: 170-6. – volume: 128 start-page: S68 year: 2005 end-page: 73 article-title: Clinical presentation of celiac disease in the pediatric population publication-title: Gastroenterology – volume: 47 start-page: 147 year: 2008 end-page: 52 article-title: CDDUX: a disease specific health‐related quality‐of‐life questionnaire for children with celiac disease publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 33 start-page: 939 year: 1998 end-page: 43 article-title: Children with celiac disease express inducible nitric oxide synthase in the small intestine during gluten challenge publication-title: Scand J Gastroenterol – volume: 47 start-page: 544 year: 2008 end-page: 6 article-title: Living well with celiac disease? publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 52 start-page: 960 year: 2003 end-page: 5 article-title: Seroprevalence, correlates, and characteristics of undetected celiac disease in England publication-title: Gut – article-title: Accuracy in celiac diagnostics by controlling the small bowel biopsy process publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 100 start-page: 2784 year: 2005 end-page: 8 article-title: Gut microflora associated characteristics in children with celiac disease publication-title: Am J Gastroenterol – volume: 15 start-page: 1091 year: 2003 end-page: 5 article-title: Fasting plasma nitric oxide products in coeliac disease publication-title: Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol – volume: 102 start-page: 330 year: 1992 end-page: 54 article-title: Gluten, major histocompatibility complex, and the small intestine. A molecular and immunobiologic approach to the spectrum of gluten sensitivity (`coeliac sprue′) publication-title: Gastroenterology – volume: 40 start-page: 1 year: 2005 end-page: 19 article-title: Guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of celiac disease in children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 36 start-page: 169 year: 2001 end-page: 73 article-title: Increased rectal nitric oxide in coeliac disease after local challenge with gluten publication-title: Scand J Gastroenterol – volume: 88 start-page: 528 year: 1999 end-page: 31 article-title: Increased urinary nitric oxide oxidation products in children with active coeliac disease publication-title: Acta Paediatr – volume: 113 start-page: 427 year: 2004 end-page: 37 article-title: Nitric oxide in inflammatory bowel disease: a universal messenger in an unsolved puzzle publication-title: Immunology – volume: 19 start-page: 83 year: 2008 end-page: 91 article-title: Transglutaminase and the pathogenesis of coeliac disease publication-title: Eur J Int Med – volume: 27 start-page: 531 year: 2008 end-page: 41 article-title: Review article: nitric oxide from dysbiotic bacterial respiration of nitrate in the pathogenesis and as a target for therapy of ulcerative colitis publication-title: Aliment Pharmacol Ther – volume: 47 start-page: S27 year: 2008 end-page: 32 article-title: Celiac disease pathogenesis: the proinflammatory cytokine network publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 49 start-page: 170 year: 2009 end-page: 6 article-title: Celiac disease revealed in 3% of Swedish 12‐year‐olds born during an epidemic publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 5 start-page: 14 year: 2005 end-page: 6 article-title: Gluten‐free diet may alleviate depressive and behavioural symptoms in adolescents with coeliac disease: a prospective follow‐up case‐series study publication-title: BMC Psychiatry – volume: 373 start-page: 1480 year: 2009 end-page: 93 article-title: Coeliac disease publication-title: Lancet – volume: 224 start-page: 502 year: 1995 end-page: 8 article-title: Sample pre‐treatment with nitrate reductase and glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase quantitatively reduces nitrate while avoiding interference by NADP+ when the Griess reaction is used to assay for nitrite publication-title: Anal Biochem – volume: 27 start-page: 196 year: 1998 end-page: 8 article-title: Significantly increased levels of nitric oxide products in urine of children with coeliac disease publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 45 start-page: 497 year: 2007 end-page: 9 article-title: Ninety percent of celiac disease is being missed publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – volume: 65 start-page: 909 year: 1990 end-page: 11 article-title: Revised criteria for diagnosis of celiac disease. Report of Working Group of European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition publication-title: Arch Dis Child – volume: 13 start-page: 272 year: 2005 end-page: 8 article-title: Gastrointestinal bacteria generate nitric oxide from nitrate and nitrite publication-title: Nitric Oxide – volume: 56 start-page: 1379 year: 2007 end-page: 86 article-title: Long‐term follow‐up od coeliac patients diagnosed in childhood: evolution toward latency is possible on a normal diet publication-title: Gut – volume: 39 start-page: 941 year: 2004 end-page: 5 article-title: Effect of a gluten‐free diet on plasma nitric oxide products in coeliac disease publication-title: Scand J Gastroenterol – volume: 356 start-page: 134 year: 2005 end-page: 42 article-title: Elevated expression of iNOS mRNA and protein in coeliac disease publication-title: Clin Chim Acta – ident: e_1_2_8_22_2 doi: 10.1080/00365520410003407 – ident: e_1_2_8_18_2 doi: 10.1097/00005176-200501000-00001 – ident: e_1_2_8_23_2 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01984.x – ident: e_1_2_8_6_2 doi: 10.1016/j.cccn.2005.01.029 – ident: e_1_2_8_28_2 doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e31815ef87d – ident: e_1_2_8_2_2 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60254-3 – ident: e_1_2_8_20_2 doi: 10.1016/j.niox.2005.08.002 – ident: e_1_2_8_26_2 doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-5-14 – ident: e_1_2_8_25_2 doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.00313.x – ident: e_1_2_8_16_2 doi: 10.1136/gut.52.7.960 – ident: e_1_2_8_21_2 doi: 10.1097/00042737-200310000-00005 – ident: e_1_2_8_14_2 article-title: Accuracy in celiac diagnostics by controlling the small bowel biopsy process publication-title: J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr – ident: e_1_2_8_19_2 doi: 10.1006/abio.1995.1079 – ident: e_1_2_8_10_2 doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e3181818fb9 – ident: e_1_2_8_4_2 doi: 10.1016/j.ejim.2007.05.012 – ident: e_1_2_8_8_2 doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1999.tb00169.x – ident: e_1_2_8_17_2 doi: 10.1136/adc.65.8.909 – ident: e_1_2_8_12_2 doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e31812e5710 – ident: e_1_2_8_7_2 doi: 10.1097/00005176-199808000-00013 – ident: e_1_2_8_11_2 doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.02.015 – ident: e_1_2_8_27_2 doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e31817fcb7f – ident: e_1_2_8_24_2 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03612.x – ident: e_1_2_8_5_2 doi: 10.1080/003655298750026958 – ident: e_1_2_8_3_2 doi: 10.1016/0016-5085(92)91819-P – ident: e_1_2_8_13_2 doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e31818c52cc – ident: e_1_2_8_9_2 doi: 10.1080/003655201750065924 – ident: e_1_2_8_15_2 doi: 10.1136/gut.2006.100511 |
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| Snippet | Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal... Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal... Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal inflammation,... Aim: Increased concentration of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, nitrite and nitrate, in the urine is a strong indication of ongoing small intestinal... |
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| SubjectTerms | Biological and medical sciences Biomarkers - urine Biopsy Celiac disease Celiac Disease - blood Celiac Disease - diagnosis Celiac Disease - urine Child Coeliac disease Female Gastroenterology. Liver. Pancreas. Abdomen General aspects Humans Immunoglobulin A - blood Male Mass Screening - methods Medical sciences MEDICIN MEDICINE nitrate Nitrates Nitrates - urine Nitric oxide Nitric Oxide - urine Nitrites - urine Other diseases. Semiology Prevention and actions Public health. Hygiene Public health. Hygiene-occupational medicine Screening Stomach. Duodenum. Small intestine. Colon. Rectum. Anus Transglutaminases - immunology Urinary nitrite Urinary nitrite/nitrate Urine |
| Title | Children with screening-detected coeliac disease show increased levels of nitric oxide products in urine |
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