Pathogenesis, Host Innate Immune Response, and Aerosol Transmission of Influenza D Virus in Cattle
Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that unde...
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| Published in | Journal of virology Vol. 93; no. 7; pp. e01853 - 18 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , , , , , , , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
United States
American Society for Microbiology
01.04.2019
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| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 0022-538X 1098-5514 1070-6321 1098-5514 |
| DOI | 10.1128/JVI.01853-18 |
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| Abstract | Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the
Orthomyxoviridae
family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex.
The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the
Orthomyxoviridae
family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease.
IMPORTANCE
Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the
Orthomyxoviridae
family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. |
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| AbstractList | Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease. IMPORTANCE Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease.IMPORTANCE Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease.IMPORTANCE Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex.The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease.IMPORTANCE Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease. Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir, and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper respiratory tract but also in the lower respiratory tract (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV-infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 m apart from inoculated calves (and thus subject to infection by aerosol transmission), and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naive contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered predisposing to or a cofactor of respiratory disease. IMPORTANCE Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus are still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of coinfecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days postchallenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the bovine respiratory disease complex. The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to be the primary host and reservoir and previous studies suggested a tropism of IDV for the upper respiratory tract and a putative role in the Bovine Respiratory Disease complex. This study aimed to characterize the pathogenicity of IDV in naive calves, as well as the ability of this virus to transmit by air. Eight naive calves were infected by aerosol with a recent French isolate, D/bovine/France/5920/2014. Results show that IDV replicates not only in the upper but also the lower respiratory tracts (LRT), inducing moderate bronchopneumonia with restricted lesions of interstitial pneumonia. Inoculation was followed by IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days post challenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses. Study of the innate immune response in the LRT of IDV infected calves indicated the overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and of chemokines CCL2, CCL3 and CCL4, but without overexpression of genes involved in the type I interferon pathway. Finally, virological examination of three aerosol-sentinel animals, housed 3 meters apart from inoculated calves, and IDV detection in air samples collected in different areas showed that IDV can be airborne transmitted and infect naïve contact calves on short distances. This study suggests that IDV is a respiratory virus with moderate pathogenicity and probably a high level of transmission. It consequently can be considered as predisposing or co-factor of respiratory disease.IMPORTANCE: Influenza D virus (IDV), a new Genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so far considered as the primary host for IDV, but the pathogenicity and the prevalence of this virus is still unclear. We demonstrated that under experimental conditions (in a controlled environment and in the absence of co-infecting pathogens), IDV is able to cause mild to moderate disease and targets both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The virus can transmit by direct as well as aerosol contacts. While this study evidenced overexpression of pathogen recognition receptors and chemokines in the lower respiratory tract, IDV-specific IgG1 production as early as 10 days post challenge, and likely both Th1 and Th2 responses, further studies are warranted to better understand the immune responses triggered by IDV and its role as part of the Bovine Respiratory Disease complex. |
| Author | Foret, Charlotte Valarcher, Jean-François Corre, Tifenn Näslund, Katarina Pinard, Anne Hägglund, Sara Cassard, Hervé Delverdier, Maxence Zohari, Siamak Salem, Elias Gauthier, David Ducatez, Mariette Meyer, Gilles |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Elias surname: Salem fullname: Salem, Elias organization: IHAP, UMR1225, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France – sequence: 2 givenname: Sara surname: Hägglund fullname: Hägglund, Sara organization: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Host Pathogen Interaction Group, Department of Clinical Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden – sequence: 3 givenname: Hervé surname: Cassard fullname: Cassard, Hervé organization: Université de Toulouse, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France – sequence: 4 givenname: Tifenn surname: Corre fullname: Corre, Tifenn organization: IHAP, UMR1225, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France – sequence: 5 givenname: Katarina surname: Näslund fullname: Näslund, Katarina organization: Department of Virology, Immunobiology and Parasitology, National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden – sequence: 6 givenname: Charlotte surname: Foret fullname: Foret, Charlotte organization: IHAP, UMR1225, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France – sequence: 7 givenname: David surname: Gauthier fullname: Gauthier, David organization: INRA, UE 1277, Experimental Infectiology Platform (PFIE), INRA-Val de Loire Research Centre, Nouzilly, France – sequence: 8 givenname: Anne surname: Pinard fullname: Pinard, Anne organization: INRA, UE 1277, Experimental Infectiology Platform (PFIE), INRA-Val de Loire Research Centre, Nouzilly, France – sequence: 9 givenname: Maxence surname: Delverdier fullname: Delverdier, Maxence organization: IHAP, UMR1225, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France, Université de Toulouse, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France – sequence: 10 givenname: Siamak surname: Zohari fullname: Zohari, Siamak organization: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Host Pathogen Interaction Group, Department of Clinical Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, Department of Virology, Immunobiology and Parasitology, National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden – sequence: 11 givenname: Jean-François surname: Valarcher fullname: Valarcher, Jean-François organization: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Host Pathogen Interaction Group, Department of Clinical Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden – sequence: 12 givenname: Mariette surname: Ducatez fullname: Ducatez, Mariette organization: IHAP, UMR1225, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France – sequence: 13 givenname: Gilles surname: Meyer fullname: Meyer, Gilles organization: IHAP, UMR1225, Université de Toulouse, INRA, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France, Université de Toulouse, Ecole Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France |
| BackLink | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30674628$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02627101$$DView record in HAL https://res.slu.se/id/publ/99309$$DView record from Swedish Publication Index |
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| Copyright | Copyright © 2019 American Society for Microbiology. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Copyright © 2019 American Society for Microbiology. 2019 American Society for Microbiology |
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| DOI | 10.1128/JVI.01853-18 |
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| Keywords | pathogenicity cattle transmission influenza virus D respiratory BRD influenzavirus D |
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| Snippet | Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the
Orthomyxoviridae
family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so... The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle are considered to... The recently discovered influenza D virus (IDV) of the Orthomyxoviridae family has been detected in swine and ruminants with a worldwide distribution. Cattle... Influenza D virus (IDV), a new genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, has a broad geographical distribution and can infect several animal species. Cattle are so... |
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| SubjectTerms | Animal biology Animals Antibodies, Viral - immunology Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex - immunology Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex - virology Cattle Cattle Diseases - immunology Cattle Diseases - virology Cell Line, Tumor Clinical Science France Humans Immunity, Innate - immunology Klinisk vetenskap Life Sciences Microbiology and Parasitology Orthomyxoviridae - immunology Orthomyxoviridae Infections - immunology Orthomyxoviridae Infections - virology Pathobiology Pathogenesis and Immunity Patobiologi Respiratory Tract Infections - immunology Respiratory Tract Infections - virology Thogotovirus - immunology Veterinary medicine and animal Health Virology |
| Title | Pathogenesis, Host Innate Immune Response, and Aerosol Transmission of Influenza D Virus in Cattle |
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