A test method to assess the frost resistance of concrete at the waterline of hydraulic structures
Superficial damage, similar in appearance to salt scaling of concrete, has been observed at the waterline of hydraulic structures, such as hydro power structures, bridge columns, canals and harbours. Progressive damage to the concrete surface results in exposure of coarse aggregate. Deterioration ra...
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| Published in | Materials and structures Vol. 48; no. 8; pp. 2403 - 2415 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Dordrecht
Springer Netherlands
01.08.2015
Springer Nature B.V |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 1359-5997 1871-6873 1871-6873 |
| DOI | 10.1617/s11527-014-0327-2 |
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| Abstract | Superficial damage, similar in appearance to salt scaling of concrete, has been observed at the waterline of hydraulic structures, such as hydro power structures, bridge columns, canals and harbours. Progressive damage to the concrete surface results in exposure of coarse aggregate. Deterioration rates of about 1 mm per year have been observed in some cases. A laboratory test method was developed in order to subject concrete specimens to exposure conditions similar to those prevailing at hydraulic structures in cold regions. Two concrete mixes were produced in order to study the effects of frost action on the deterioration of concrete at the waterline. The first mix was made of frost-resistant concrete with water to cement-ratio (
w
/
c
-ratio) 0.45, whereas the second mix was made of non-frost-resistant concrete with
w
/
c
-ratio 0.65. Regarding the specimens with
w
/
c
-ratio 0.65, scaling was observed at the waterline after 51 freeze–thaw cycles. The damage was caused by the effects of frost action, since the effects of leaching and erosion can be neglected in the test setup. No damage to the specimens with
w
/
c
-ratio 0.45 was observed. The laboratory test method proposed in this paper is considered appropriate for assessing the frost resistance of concrete at the waterline of hydraulic structures in cold regions. |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | Superficial damage, similar in appearance to salt scaling of concrete, has been observed at the waterline of hydraulic structures, such as hydro power structures, bridge columns, canals and harbours. Progressive damage to the concrete surface results in exposure of coarse aggregate. Deterioration rates of about 1 mm per year have been observed in some cases. A laboratory test method was developed in order to subject concrete specimens to exposure conditions similar to those prevailing at hydraulic structures in cold regions. Two concrete mixes were produced in order to study the effects of frost action on the deterioration of concrete at the waterline. The first mix was made of frost-resistant concrete with water to cement-ratio (w/c-ratio) 0.45, whereas the second mix was made of non-frost-resistant concrete with w/c-ratio 0.65. Regarding the specimens with w/c-ratio 0.65, scaling was observed at the waterline after 51 freeze-thaw cycles. The damage was caused by the effects of frost action, since the effects of leaching and erosion can be neglected in the test setup. No damage to the specimens with w/c-ratio 0.45 was observed. The laboratory test method proposed in this paper is considered appropriate for assessing the frost resistance of concrete at the waterline of hydraulic structures in cold regions. Superficial damage, similar in appearance to salt scaling of concrete, has been observed at the waterline of hydraulic structures, such as hydro power structures, bridge columns, canals and harbours. Progressive damage to the concrete surface results in exposure of coarse aggregate. Deterioration rates of about 1 mm per year have been observed in some cases. A laboratory test method was developed in order to subject concrete specimens to exposure conditions similar to those prevailing at hydraulic structures in cold regions. Two concrete mixes were produced in order to study the effects of frost action on the deterioration of concrete at the waterline. The first mix was made of frost-resistant concrete with water to cement-ratio ( w / c -ratio) 0.45, whereas the second mix was made of non-frost-resistant concrete with w / c -ratio 0.65. Regarding the specimens with w / c -ratio 0.65, scaling was observed at the waterline after 51 freeze–thaw cycles. The damage was caused by the effects of frost action, since the effects of leaching and erosion can be neglected in the test setup. No damage to the specimens with w / c -ratio 0.45 was observed. The laboratory test method proposed in this paper is considered appropriate for assessing the frost resistance of concrete at the waterline of hydraulic structures in cold regions. |
| Author | Oxfall, Mikael Fridh, Katja Hassanzadeh, Manouchehr Rosenqvist, Martin |
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| CitedBy_id | crossref_primary_10_1680_jmacr_17_00420 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_conbuildmat_2022_128359 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jobe_2024_110247 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_conbuildmat_2022_127254 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cscm_2019_e00232 crossref_primary_10_3390_buildings12101527 crossref_primary_10_3390_buildings14082330 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_conbuildmat_2022_128171 crossref_primary_10_1617_s11527_021_01802_x crossref_primary_10_1016_j_conbuildmat_2022_126371 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cemconres_2016_11_012 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_conbuildmat_2023_133472 crossref_primary_10_1108_MMMS_03_2016_0013 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11440_018_0710_1 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_conbuildmat_2017_05_137 crossref_primary_10_3390_app13084947 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cemconres_2022_106824 crossref_primary_10_2478_ncr_2021_0019 |
| Cites_doi | 10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00099-9 10.1617/s11527-006-9104-1 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.09.001 10.1016/0008-8846(79)90125-X 10.1007/BF02485951 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.03.003 10.1016/0008-8846(76)90097-1 10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.10.007 |
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| Keywords | Scaling Concrete Freeze–thaw cycles Frost damage Hydraulic structures |
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| References | ChatterjiSFreezing of air-entrained cement-based materials and specific actions of air-entraining agentsCem Concr Compos20032575976510.1016/S0958-9465(02)00099-9 Kokubu M, Ohashi K, Takei S, Kanaiwa A, Murata S (1967) Examples of deterioration from frost damage of surfaces of concrete dams. In: ICOLD 9th international congress on large dams, Istanbul, vol. 3, pp 31–51 ValenzaJJSchererGWMechanism for salt scaling of a cementitious surfaceMater Struct20074025926810.1617/s11527-006-9104-1 LitvanGGFrost action in cement in the presence of de-icersCem Concr Res1976635135610.1016/0008-8846(76)90097-1 Powers TC (1949) The air requirement of frost-resistant concrete. In: Proceedings of the Highway Research Board 29, Bull 33:184–211 PowersTCBrownyardTLStudies of the physical properties of hardened Portland cement paste—Part 8. The freezing of water in hardened Portland cement pasteJ Am Concr Inst194718933969 Setzer MJ (2002) Development of the micro-ice-lens model. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international RILEM workshop on frost resistance of concrete, Essen, pp 133–145 Krus J (1996) Geographically induced freeze–thaw cycles in Swedish concrete structures. Report, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm Powers TC, Helmuth RA (1953) Theory of volume changes in hardened Portland-cement paste during freezing. In: Proceedings of the highway research board 32, Bull 46:285–297 Lehtinen P (1979) On the deterioration of concrete observed in dams and hydraulic structures in Finland. In: ICOLD 13th international congress on large dams, New Delhi, vol. 2, pp 83–90 JohannessonBDimensional and ice content changes of hardened concrete at different freezing and thawing temperaturesCem Concr Compos201032738310.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.09.001 SS 13 72 44 (1995) Concrete testing—Hardened concrete—scaling at freezing. Swedish Standards Institution Fagerlund G (1997) Internal frost attack—state of the art. In: Proceedings of the international RILEM workshop on frost resistance of concrete, Essen, pp 321–338 FagerlundGThe international cooperative test of the critical degree of saturation method of assessing the freeze/thaw resistance of concreteMater Struct19774231253 Fagerlund G (1972) Critical degrees of saturation at freezing of porous and brittle materials. Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University, Lund, (in Swedish) PenttalaVSurface and internal deterioration of concrete due to saline and non-saline freeze–thaw loadsCem Concr Res20063692192810.1016/j.cemconres.2005.10.007 PowersTCA working hypothesis for further studies of frost resistance of concreteJ Am Concr Inst194516245272 SetzerMJFagerlundGJanssenDJCDF test—test method for the freeze–thaw resistance of concrete—tests with sodium chloride solution (CDF)Mater Struct19962952352810.1007/BF02485951 ValenzaJJSchererGWA review of salt scaling: II. MechanismsCem Concr Res2007371022103410.1016/j.cemconres.2007.03.003 Fridh K (2005) Internal frost damage in concrete. Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University, Lund ICOLD (1996) Dams and related structures in cold climate. ICOLD Bulletin 105 ASTM C672/C672M (2003) Standard test method for scaling resistance of concrete surfaces exposed to deicing chemicals. American Society for Testing and Materials, New York Lindmark S (1998) Mechanisms of salt frost scaling of Portland cement-bound materials: Studies and hypothesis. Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University, Lund Powers TC (1956) Resistance of concrete to frost at early ages. In: Proceedings of the RILEM symposium on winter concreting, Copenhagen, pp 1–46. Reprinted by the Research and Development Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association, Bulletin 71 Heggestad R, Myran R (1967) Investigations on 132 Norwegian concrete dams. In: ICOLD 9th International Congress on Large Dams, Istanbul, vol. 3, pp 491–517 PowersTCVoid spacing as a basis for producing air-entrained concreteJ Am Concr Inst195425741760 Jacobsen S (1995) Scaling and cracking in unsealed freeze/thaw testing of Portland cement and silica fume concretes. Ph.D. dissertation, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim MacInnisCWhitingJDThe frost resistance of concrete subjected to a deicing agentCem Concr Res1979932533610.1016/0008-8846(79)90125-X 327_CR9 327_CR8 TC Powers (327_CR20) 1954; 25 327_CR7 327_CR6 327_CR24 327_CR26 MJ Setzer (327_CR25) 1996; 29 S Chatterji (327_CR2) 2003; 25 327_CR21 327_CR23 TC Powers (327_CR18) 1945; 16 V Penttala (327_CR17) 2006; 36 C MacInnis (327_CR16) 1979; 9 327_CR13 JJ Valenza (327_CR27) 2007; 37 327_CR14 G Fagerlund (327_CR4) 1977; 4 GG Litvan (327_CR15) 1976; 6 TC Powers (327_CR22) 1947; 18 327_CR19 327_CR1 327_CR5 B Johannesson (327_CR10) 2010; 32 JJ Valenza (327_CR28) 2007; 40 327_CR3 327_CR11 327_CR12 |
| References_xml | – reference: Jacobsen S (1995) Scaling and cracking in unsealed freeze/thaw testing of Portland cement and silica fume concretes. Ph.D. dissertation, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim – reference: JohannessonBDimensional and ice content changes of hardened concrete at different freezing and thawing temperaturesCem Concr Compos201032738310.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.09.001 – reference: Krus J (1996) Geographically induced freeze–thaw cycles in Swedish concrete structures. Report, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm – reference: LitvanGGFrost action in cement in the presence of de-icersCem Concr Res1976635135610.1016/0008-8846(76)90097-1 – reference: Powers TC, Helmuth RA (1953) Theory of volume changes in hardened Portland-cement paste during freezing. In: Proceedings of the highway research board 32, Bull 46:285–297 – reference: ICOLD (1996) Dams and related structures in cold climate. ICOLD Bulletin 105 – reference: PowersTCVoid spacing as a basis for producing air-entrained concreteJ Am Concr Inst195425741760 – reference: PowersTCA working hypothesis for further studies of frost resistance of concreteJ Am Concr Inst194516245272 – reference: Powers TC (1949) The air requirement of frost-resistant concrete. In: Proceedings of the Highway Research Board 29, Bull 33:184–211 – reference: ValenzaJJSchererGWMechanism for salt scaling of a cementitious surfaceMater Struct20074025926810.1617/s11527-006-9104-1 – reference: SS 13 72 44 (1995) Concrete testing—Hardened concrete—scaling at freezing. Swedish Standards Institution – reference: MacInnisCWhitingJDThe frost resistance of concrete subjected to a deicing agentCem Concr Res1979932533610.1016/0008-8846(79)90125-X – reference: PowersTCBrownyardTLStudies of the physical properties of hardened Portland cement paste—Part 8. The freezing of water in hardened Portland cement pasteJ Am Concr Inst194718933969 – reference: Heggestad R, Myran R (1967) Investigations on 132 Norwegian concrete dams. In: ICOLD 9th International Congress on Large Dams, Istanbul, vol. 3, pp 491–517 – reference: Lindmark S (1998) Mechanisms of salt frost scaling of Portland cement-bound materials: Studies and hypothesis. Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University, Lund – reference: Fagerlund G (1972) Critical degrees of saturation at freezing of porous and brittle materials. Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University, Lund, (in Swedish) – reference: Powers TC (1956) Resistance of concrete to frost at early ages. In: Proceedings of the RILEM symposium on winter concreting, Copenhagen, pp 1–46. Reprinted by the Research and Development Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association, Bulletin 71 – reference: SetzerMJFagerlundGJanssenDJCDF test—test method for the freeze–thaw resistance of concrete—tests with sodium chloride solution (CDF)Mater Struct19962952352810.1007/BF02485951 – reference: Setzer MJ (2002) Development of the micro-ice-lens model. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international RILEM workshop on frost resistance of concrete, Essen, pp 133–145 – reference: PenttalaVSurface and internal deterioration of concrete due to saline and non-saline freeze–thaw loadsCem Concr Res20063692192810.1016/j.cemconres.2005.10.007 – reference: Fridh K (2005) Internal frost damage in concrete. Ph.D. dissertation, Lund University, Lund – reference: FagerlundGThe international cooperative test of the critical degree of saturation method of assessing the freeze/thaw resistance of concreteMater Struct19774231253 – reference: ChatterjiSFreezing of air-entrained cement-based materials and specific actions of air-entraining agentsCem Concr Compos20032575976510.1016/S0958-9465(02)00099-9 – reference: Lehtinen P (1979) On the deterioration of concrete observed in dams and hydraulic structures in Finland. In: ICOLD 13th international congress on large dams, New Delhi, vol. 2, pp 83–90 – reference: Fagerlund G (1997) Internal frost attack—state of the art. In: Proceedings of the international RILEM workshop on frost resistance of concrete, Essen, pp 321–338 – reference: ValenzaJJSchererGWA review of salt scaling: II. MechanismsCem Concr Res2007371022103410.1016/j.cemconres.2007.03.003 – reference: Kokubu M, Ohashi K, Takei S, Kanaiwa A, Murata S (1967) Examples of deterioration from frost damage of surfaces of concrete dams. In: ICOLD 9th international congress on large dams, Istanbul, vol. 3, pp 31–51 – reference: ASTM C672/C672M (2003) Standard test method for scaling resistance of concrete surfaces exposed to deicing chemicals. American Society for Testing and Materials, New York – volume: 4 start-page: 231 year: 1977 ident: 327_CR4 publication-title: Mater Struct – ident: 327_CR21 – ident: 327_CR23 – ident: 327_CR5 – volume: 25 start-page: 759 year: 2003 ident: 327_CR2 publication-title: Cem Concr Compos doi: 10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00099-9 – ident: 327_CR7 – volume: 25 start-page: 741 year: 1954 ident: 327_CR20 publication-title: J Am Concr Inst – volume: 40 start-page: 259 year: 2007 ident: 327_CR28 publication-title: Mater Struct doi: 10.1617/s11527-006-9104-1 – ident: 327_CR9 – volume: 32 start-page: 73 year: 2010 ident: 327_CR10 publication-title: Cem Concr Compos doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.09.001 – ident: 327_CR11 – ident: 327_CR13 – ident: 327_CR3 – ident: 327_CR1 – volume: 9 start-page: 325 year: 1979 ident: 327_CR16 publication-title: Cem Concr Res doi: 10.1016/0008-8846(79)90125-X – ident: 327_CR19 – volume: 29 start-page: 523 year: 1996 ident: 327_CR25 publication-title: Mater Struct doi: 10.1007/BF02485951 – volume: 37 start-page: 1022 year: 2007 ident: 327_CR27 publication-title: Cem Concr Res doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.03.003 – ident: 327_CR24 – volume: 6 start-page: 351 year: 1976 ident: 327_CR15 publication-title: Cem Concr Res doi: 10.1016/0008-8846(76)90097-1 – ident: 327_CR26 – volume: 36 start-page: 921 year: 2006 ident: 327_CR17 publication-title: Cem Concr Res doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.10.007 – volume: 18 start-page: 933 year: 1947 ident: 327_CR22 publication-title: J Am Concr Inst – ident: 327_CR6 – ident: 327_CR8 – ident: 327_CR12 – ident: 327_CR14 – volume: 16 start-page: 245 year: 1945 ident: 327_CR18 publication-title: J Am Concr Inst |
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| SubjectTerms | Building construction Building Materials Civil Engineering Concrete construction Concretes Damage Deterioration Engineering Engineering and Technology Frost Frost resistance Hydraulic structures Laboratory tests Machines Manufacturing Materials Engineering Materials Science Materialteknik Original Article Processes Solid Mechanics Teknik Theoretical and Applied Mechanics |
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| Title | A test method to assess the frost resistance of concrete at the waterline of hydraulic structures |
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