Rapid limb‐specific modulation of vestibular contributions to ankle muscle activity during locomotion
Key points The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vesti...
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| Published in | The Journal of physiology Vol. 595; no. 6; pp. 2175 - 2195 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
England
Wiley Subscription Services, Inc
15.03.2017
John Wiley and Sons Inc |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 0022-3751 1469-7793 1469-7793 |
| DOI | 10.1113/JP272614 |
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| Abstract | Key points
The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence.
Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb.
The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split‐belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split‐belt error‐correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation.
Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops.
These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain.
During walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase‐dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb‐specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split‐belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s−1 and the other moving at 0.8 m s−1 while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo‐muscular coupling between velocity‐matched and unmatched tied‐belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by ∼20–50% and occurred ∼13–20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity‐dependent modulation of vestibular‐evoked muscle activity was retained during split‐belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity‐matched tied‐belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular‐evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (∼13–34 strides) after onset of split‐belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (∼128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (∼40–100 and ∼20–70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer‐term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split‐belt adaptation. Rapid limb‐specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning.
Key points
The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence.
Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb.
The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split‐belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split‐belt error‐correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation.
Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops.
These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence.Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb.The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split‐belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split‐belt error‐correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation.Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops.These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. Key points The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split‐belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split‐belt error‐correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. During walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase‐dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb‐specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split‐belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s−1 and the other moving at 0.8 m s−1 while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo‐muscular coupling between velocity‐matched and unmatched tied‐belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by ∼20–50% and occurred ∼13–20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity‐dependent modulation of vestibular‐evoked muscle activity was retained during split‐belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity‐matched tied‐belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular‐evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (∼13–34 strides) after onset of split‐belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (∼128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (∼40–100 and ∼20–70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer‐term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split‐belt adaptation. Rapid limb‐specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning. Key points The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split‐belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split‐belt error‐correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. Key points * The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. * Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. * The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. * Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. * These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. During walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase-dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb-specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split-belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s super(-1) and the other moving at 0.8 m s super(-1) while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo-muscular coupling between velocity-matched and unmatched tied-belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by 20-50% and occurred 13-20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity-dependent modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle activity was retained during split-belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity-matched tied-belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (13-34 strides) after onset of split-belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (40-100 and 20-70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer-term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split-belt adaptation. Rapid limb-specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning. Key points * The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. * Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. * The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. * Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. * These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. During walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase-dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb-specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split-belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s and the other moving at 0.8 m s while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo-muscular coupling between velocity-matched and unmatched tied-belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by ∼20-50% and occurred ∼13-20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity-dependent modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle activity was retained during split-belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity-matched tied-belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (∼13-34 strides) after onset of split-belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (∼128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (∼40-100 and ∼20-70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer-term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split-belt adaptation. Rapid limb-specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning. Key points The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. During walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase-dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb-specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split-belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s-1 and the other moving at 0.8 m s-1 while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo-muscular coupling between velocity-matched and unmatched tied-belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by 20-50% and occurred 13-20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity-dependent modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle activity was retained during split-belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity-matched tied-belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (13-34 strides) after onset of split-belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (40-100 and 20-70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer-term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split-belt adaptation. Rapid limb-specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning. Key points The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split‐belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split‐belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split‐belt error‐correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain. The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain.KEY POINTSThe vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split-belt treadmill, we show that vestibular influence on locomotor activity is modulated independently in each limb. The independent vestibular modulation of muscle activity from each limb occurs rapidly at the onset of split-belt walking, over a shorter time course relative to the characteristic split-belt error-correction mechanisms (i.e. muscle activity and kinematics) associated with locomotor adaptation. Together, the present results indicate that the nervous system rapidly modulates the vestibular influence of each limb separately through processes involving ongoing sensory feedback loops. These findings help us understand how vestibular information is used to accommodate the variable and commonplace demands of locomotion, such as turning or navigating irregular terrain.During walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase-dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb-specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split-belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s-1 and the other moving at 0.8 m s-1 while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo-muscular coupling between velocity-matched and unmatched tied-belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by ∼20-50% and occurred ∼13-20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity-dependent modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle activity was retained during split-belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity-matched tied-belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (∼13-34 strides) after onset of split-belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (∼128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (∼40-100 and ∼20-70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer-term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split-belt adaptation. Rapid limb-specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning.ABSTRACTDuring walking, the vestibular influence on locomotor activity is phase-dependent and modulated in both limbs with changes in velocity. It is unclear, however, whether this bilateral modulation is due to a coordinated mechanism between both limbs or instead through limb-specific processes that remain masked by the symmetric nature of locomotion. Here, human subjects walked on a split-belt treadmill with one belt moving at 0.4 m s-1 and the other moving at 0.8 m s-1 while exposed to an electrical vestibular stimulus. Muscle activity was recorded bilaterally around the ankles of each limb and used to compare vestibulo-muscular coupling between velocity-matched and unmatched tied-belt walking. In general, response magnitudes decreased by ∼20-50% and occurred ∼13-20% earlier in the stride cycle at the higher belt velocity. This velocity-dependent modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle activity was retained during split-belt walking and was similar, within each limb, to velocity-matched tied-belt walking. These results demonstrate that the vestibular influence on ankle muscles during locomotion can be adapted independently to each limb. Furthermore, modulation of vestibular-evoked muscle responses occurred rapidly (∼13-34 strides) after onset of split-belt walking. This rapid adaptation contrasted with the prolonged adaptation in step length symmetry (∼128 strides) as well as EMG magnitude and timing (∼40-100 and ∼20-70 strides, respectively). These results suggest that vestibular influence on ankle muscle control is adjusted rapidly in sensorimotor control loops as opposed to longer-term error correction mechanisms commonly associated with split-belt adaptation. Rapid limb-specific sensorimotor feedback adaptation may be advantageous for asymmetric overground locomotion, such as navigating irregular terrain or turning. |
| Author | Dakin, Christopher J. Vlutters, Mark Blouin, Jean‐Sébastien Forbes, Patrick A. der Kooij, Herman Schouten, Alfred C. |
| AuthorAffiliation | 3 Laboratory of Biomechanical Engineering, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine (MIRA) University of Twente Enschede The Netherlands 5 Department of Kinesiology and Health Science Utah State University Logan Utah USA 7 Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada 2 Department of Neuroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands 1 Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering Delft University of Technology Delft The Netherlands 6 School of Kinesiology University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada 8 Institute for Computing, Information and Cognitive Systems University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada 4 Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders University College London Institute of Neurology London UK |
| AuthorAffiliation_xml | – name: 2 Department of Neuroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands – name: 7 Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada – name: 1 Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering Delft University of Technology Delft The Netherlands – name: 6 School of Kinesiology University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada – name: 4 Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders University College London Institute of Neurology London UK – name: 3 Laboratory of Biomechanical Engineering, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine (MIRA) University of Twente Enschede The Netherlands – name: 8 Institute for Computing, Information and Cognitive Systems University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada – name: 5 Department of Kinesiology and Health Science Utah State University Logan Utah USA |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Patrick A. orcidid: 0000-0002-0230-9971 surname: Forbes fullname: Forbes, Patrick A. email: p.forbes@erasmusmc.nl organization: University of British Columbia – sequence: 2 givenname: Mark surname: Vlutters fullname: Vlutters, Mark organization: University of Twente – sequence: 3 givenname: Christopher J. surname: Dakin fullname: Dakin, Christopher J. organization: Utah State University – sequence: 4 givenname: Herman surname: der Kooij fullname: der Kooij, Herman organization: University of Twente – sequence: 5 givenname: Jean‐Sébastien surname: Blouin fullname: Blouin, Jean‐Sébastien organization: University of British Columbia – sequence: 6 givenname: Alfred C. surname: Schouten fullname: Schouten, Alfred C. organization: University of Twente |
| BackLink | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28008621$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed |
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| Keywords | limb-specific vestibular contributions split-belt locomotion vestibulo-muscular coupling |
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The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence.
Using a... The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split‐belt... The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a split-belt... Key points The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. Using a... Key points * The vestibular influence on human walking is phase-dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence. *... The vestibular influence on human walking is phase‐dependent and modulated across both limbs with changes in locomotor velocity and cadence.Using a split‐belt... |
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| SubjectTerms | Adult Biomechanical Phenomena Cognitive and Behavioural Neuroscience Electromyography Female Humans limb‐specific vestibular contributions Lower Extremity - physiology Male Muscle, Skeletal - physiology Neuroscience Neuroscience ‐ Behavioural/Systems/Cognitive Research Paper Sensory Neuroscience split‐belt locomotion Vestibular Nuclei - physiology vestibulo‐muscular coupling Walking - physiology Young Adult |
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| Title | Rapid limb‐specific modulation of vestibular contributions to ankle muscle activity during locomotion |
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