'Everything is relative': Comparison processes in social judgment The 2002 Jaspars Lecture
Any judgment involves a comparison of the evaluated target to a pertinent norm or standard, so that comparison processes lie at the core of human judgment. Despite this prominent role, however, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that underlie comparisons and produce their variable co...
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| Published in | European journal of social psychology Vol. 33; no. 6; pp. 719 - 733 |
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| Main Author | |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Chichester, UK
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
01.11.2003
Wiley |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 0046-2772 1099-0992 |
| DOI | 10.1002/ejsp.169 |
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| Abstract | Any judgment involves a comparison of the evaluated target to a pertinent norm or standard, so that comparison processes lie at the core of human judgment. Despite this prominent role, however, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that underlie comparisons and produce their variable consequences. To understand these consequences, one has to examine what target knowledge is sought and activated during the comparison process. Two alternative comparison mechanisms are distinguished. Similarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is similar to the standard and leads to assimilation. Dissimilarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is dissimilar from the standard and leads to contrast. Distinguishing between these alternative mechanisms provides an integrative perspective on comparison consequences in the realm of social comparison and beyond. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |
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| AbstractList | Any judgment involves a comparison of the evaluated target to a pertinent norm or standard, so that comparison processes lie at the core of human judgment. Despite this prominent role, however, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that underlie comparisons and produce their variable consequences. To understand these consequences, one has to examine what target knowledge is sought and activated during the comparison process. Two alternative comparison mechanisms are distinguished. Similarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is similar to the standard and leads to assimilation. Dissimilarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is dissimilar from the standard and leads to contrast. Distinguishing between these alternative mechanisms provides an integrative perspective on comparison consequences in the realm of social comparison and beyond. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Any judgment involves a comparison of the evaluated target to a pertinent norm or standard, so that comparison processes lie at the core of human judgment. Despite this prominent role, however, little is known about the psychological mechanisms that underlie comparisons and produce their variable consequences. To understand these consequences, one has to examine what target knowledge is sought and activated during the comparison process. Two alternative comparison mechanisms are distinguished. Similarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is similar to the standard and leads to assimilation. Dissimilarity testing involves a selective search for evidence indicating that the target is dissimilar from the standard and leads to contrast. Distinguishing between these alternative mechanisms provides an integrative perspective on comparison consequences in the realm of social comparison and beyond. (Original abstract) |
| Author | Mussweiler, Thomas |
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| Keywords | Social comparison Human Social perception Similarity Review Social cognition Judgment |
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| References | Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93, 136-153. Mussweiler, T. (2003). Comparison processes in social judgment: Mechanisms and consequences. Psychological Review, 110, 472-489. Brewer, M. B., & Weber, J. G. (1994). Self-evaluation effects of interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 268-275. Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120. Biernat, M., Manis, M., & Nelson, T. E. (1991). Stereotypes and standards of judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 485-499. Spencer, S. J., Fein, S., Wolfe, C. T., Fong, C., Dunn, M. A. (1998). Automatic activation of stereotypes: The role of self-image threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1139-1152. Herr, P. M. (1986). Consequences of priming: Judgment and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1106-1115. Sherif, M., & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in communication and attitude change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141-154. Bodenhausen, G. V., & Lichtenstein, M. (1987). Social stereotypes and information-processing strategies: The impact of task complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 871-880. Higgins, E. T., & Lurie, L. (1983). Context, categorization, and recall: The 'change-of-standard' effect. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 525-547. Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16(1), 148-156. Pelham, B. W., & Wachsmuth, J. O. (1995). The waxing and waning of the social self: Assimilation and contrast in social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 825-838. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1130. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140. Snyder, M., & Swann, W. B. (1978). Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1202-1212. Herr, P. M., Sherman, S. J., & Fazio, R. H. (1983). On the consequences of priming: Assimilation and contrast effects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 323-340. Biernat, M., Manis, M., & Kobrynowicz, D. (1997). Simultaneous assimilation and contrast effects in judgments of self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 254-269. Mussweiler, T., & Bodenhausen, G. (2002). I know you are but what am I? Self-evaluative consequences of judging ingroup and outgroup members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 19-32. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1660-1672. Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52, 45-56. Upshaw, H. S. (1978). Social influences on attitudes and on anchoring of congeneric attitude scales. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 327-339. Mussweiler, T., & Strack, F. (2000). The 'relative self': Informational and judgmental consequences of comparative self-evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 23-38. Mussweiler, T. (2001b). 'Seek and Ye shall find': Antecedents of assimilation and contrast in social comparison. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 499-509. Mussweiler, T. (2001a). Focus of comparison as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast in social comparison. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 38-47. Buunk, B. P., Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., VanYperen, N. W., & Dakof, G. A. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison: Either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1238-1249. Dijksterhuis, A., Spears, R., Postmes, T., Stapel, D. A., Koomen, W., van Knippenberg, A., & Scheepers, D. (1998). Seeing one thing and doing another: Contrast effects in automatic behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 862-871. Brown, J. D., Novick, N. J., Lord, K. A., & Richards, J. M. (1992). When Gulliver travels: Social context, psychological closeness, and self-appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(5), 717-727. Trope, Y., & Bassok, M. (1982). Confirmatory and diagnostic strategies in social information gathering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 22-34. Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37-47. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. Stapel, D., & Koomen, W. (2000). Distinctness of others, mutability of selves: Their impact on self-evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1068-1087. Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1994). Structural alignment in comparison: No difference without similarity. Psychological Science, 5, 152-158. Huttenlocher, J., & Higgins, E. T. (1971). Adjectives, comparatives, and syllogisms. Psychological Review, 78, 487-504. Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 91-103. 1986; 93 1983; 19 1979; 37 1987; 52 1986; 51 1990; 59 1987; 94 1991; 60 1994; 66 1975 2000; 51 1996 1994 2002; 82 1978; 36 1978; 14 1974; 185 1983; 15 1970; 16 2001a; 27 2003; 110 1999 1998; 24 1997; 73 1997; 52 2000; 79 1995; 69 1971; 78 1969; 4 1982; 43 1954; 7 1999; 10 1961 1977; 13 2001b; 31 1998; 75 1994; 5 1968 1992; 62 Sherman S. J. (e_1_2_1_35_1) 1999 Sherif M. (e_1_2_1_34_1) 1961 Biernat M. (e_1_2_1_4_1) 1997; 73 Upshaw H. S. (e_1_2_1_43_1) 1969 e_1_2_1_42_1 e_1_2_1_20_1 e_1_2_1_40_1 e_1_2_1_23_1 e_1_2_1_24_1 e_1_2_1_21_1 e_1_2_1_44_1 e_1_2_1_22_1 Dijksterhuis A. (e_1_2_1_9_1) 1998; 75 e_1_2_1_27_1 e_1_2_1_28_1 e_1_2_1_25_1 e_1_2_1_26_1 Schwarz N. (e_1_2_1_33_1) 1994 Trope Y. (e_1_2_1_41_1) 1996 Bargh J. A. (e_1_2_1_2_1) 1999 e_1_2_1_7_1 e_1_2_1_31_1 e_1_2_1_8_1 e_1_2_1_30_1 e_1_2_1_5_1 e_1_2_1_6_1 Higgins E. T. (e_1_2_1_17_1) 1996 e_1_2_1_3_1 e_1_2_1_12_1 e_1_2_1_13_1 e_1_2_1_10_1 e_1_2_1_11_1 e_1_2_1_32_1 e_1_2_1_16_1 e_1_2_1_39_1 Mussweiler T. (e_1_2_1_29_1) 2002; 82 e_1_2_1_38_1 e_1_2_1_14_1 e_1_2_1_37_1 e_1_2_1_15_1 e_1_2_1_36_1 e_1_2_1_18_1 e_1_2_1_19_1 |
| References_xml | – reference: Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 91-103. – reference: Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120. – reference: Herr, P. M. (1986). Consequences of priming: Judgment and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1106-1115. – reference: Morse, S., & Gergen, K. J. (1970). Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16(1), 148-156. – reference: Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1660-1672. – reference: Spencer, S. J., Fein, S., Wolfe, C. T., Fong, C., Dunn, M. A. (1998). Automatic activation of stereotypes: The role of self-image threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1139-1152. – reference: Buunk, B. P., Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., VanYperen, N. W., & Dakof, G. A. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison: Either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1238-1249. – reference: Mussweiler, T., & Bodenhausen, G. (2002). I know you are but what am I? Self-evaluative consequences of judging ingroup and outgroup members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 19-32. – reference: Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141-154. – reference: Mussweiler, T., & Strack, F. (2000). The 'relative self': Informational and judgmental consequences of comparative self-evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 23-38. – reference: Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52, 45-56. – reference: Mussweiler, T. (2003). Comparison processes in social judgment: Mechanisms and consequences. Psychological Review, 110, 472-489. – reference: Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. – reference: Higgins, E. T., & Lurie, L. (1983). Context, categorization, and recall: The 'change-of-standard' effect. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 525-547. – reference: Brewer, M. B., & Weber, J. G. (1994). Self-evaluation effects of interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 268-275. – reference: Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93, 136-153. – reference: Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1130. – reference: Snyder, M., & Swann, W. B. (1978). Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1202-1212. – reference: Bodenhausen, G. V., & Lichtenstein, M. (1987). Social stereotypes and information-processing strategies: The impact of task complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 871-880. – reference: Huttenlocher, J., & Higgins, E. T. (1971). Adjectives, comparatives, and syllogisms. Psychological Review, 78, 487-504. – reference: Mussweiler, T. (2001a). Focus of comparison as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast in social comparison. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 38-47. – reference: Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37-47. – reference: Herr, P. 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| SubjectTerms | Biological and medical sciences Comparative analysis Fundamental and applied biological sciences. Psychology Judgement Knowledge Psychological mechanisms Psychology Psychology. Psychoanalysis. Psychiatry Psychology. Psychophysiology Social attribution, perception and cognition Social comparison Social psychology Social relations Society |
| Title | 'Everything is relative': Comparison processes in social judgment The 2002 Jaspars Lecture |
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