Technology of thermoforming

Covers thermoforming processes and products. The book moves from a relatively simple approach to more technical in-depth consideration, featuring examples and guidelines to illustrate all technical aspects.

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Bibliographic Details
Main Author Throne, James L., 1937-
Format Electronic eBook
LanguageEnglish
Published Munich ; New York : Cincinnati : Hanser Publishers ; Hanser/Gardner Publications, 1996.
Subjects
Thermoforming.
elektronické knihy
electronic books
Online AccessFull text
ISBN1591248671
9781591248675
9783446402478
3446402470
1569901988
9781569901984
Physical Description1 online resource (xvi, 882 pages) : illustrations

Cover

Table of Contents:
  • Intro
  • Preface
  • Contents
  • 1 Thermoforming-Definitions,History,Methods and Equipment
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 History
  • 1.3 Markets
  • 1.4 Some Definitions
  • Gage
  • Clamping of Thin-Gage Sheet
  • Clamping of Heavy-Gage Sheet
  • Heating of Thin-Gage Sheet
  • Heating Heavy-Gage Sheet
  • Shaping Thin-Gage Sheet
  • Shaping Heavy-Gage Sheet
  • Trimming the Thin-Gage Sheet
  • Trimming the Heavy-Gage Sheet
  • Depth-of-Draw
  • 1.5 Methods of Forming
  • One-Step Forming
  • Two-Step Forming with Prestretching
  • Multi-Step Forming
  • Other Variations
  • 1.6 Thermoforming Machinery
  • Heating Source
  • Forming Platform
  • Vacuum System
  • Pressure System
  • Process Control
  • Trimming and Cut Parts Handling
  • 1.7 Heavy-Gage Thermoforming Machinery Specifics
  • 1.8 Thin-Gage Thermoforming Machinery Specifics
  • 1.9 References
  • 2 Polymeric Materials
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Network Nature of Polymers
  • 2.3 Addition and Condensation Polymerization
  • 2.4 Aromatic and Aliphatic Polymers
  • 2.5 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution
  • 2.6 Molecular Weight and Properties
  • 2.7 Morphology and Properties
  • 2.8 Molecular Orientation
  • 2.9 Chain Mobility and Polymer Stiffness
  • 2.10 Stress-Crack Resistance
  • 2.11 Gas Permeation
  • 2.12 Copolymerization
  • 2.13 Blends
  • 2.14 Adducts
  • Plasticizers
  • Other Additives
  • Fillers and Reinforcing Fibers
  • 2.15 Laminates
  • 2.16 Stress-Strain Behavior of Plastics
  • 2.17 Thermal Properties
  • Heat Capacity
  • Thermal Conductivity
  • Thermal Diffusivity
  • Thermal Expansion Coefficient
  • 2.18 Infrared Spectra
  • 2.19 Summary
  • 2.20 References
  • 3 Heating the Sheet
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Energy Absorption by Sheet
  • 3.3 Heat Transfer Modes
  • 3.4 Incorporating Formability and Time-Dependent Heating
  • 3.5 Conduction
  • 3.6 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
  • The Biot Number.
  • Effective Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient
  • Constant Heat Flux
  • 3.7 Radiation Heating
  • Black Body Radiation
  • Gray Body-Emissivity
  • Radiant Heater Efficiency-Constant Heat Flux Application
  • 3.8 Real Heaters-Efficiencies
  • Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
  • Convection and the Heat Transfer Coefficient
  • Rod Heaters
  • 3.9 Long-Term Radiant Heater Efficiencies
  • 3.10 Edge Losses-View Factor
  • Local Energy Input
  • Pattern Heating
  • Zone, Zoned or Zonal Heating
  • Heater to Sheet Distance
  • 3.11 Thin-Gage Sheet-Approximate Heating Rates
  • Constant Environmental Temperature Approximation
  • Constant Heat Flux Approximation
  • Thin-Gage Approximations-Comments
  • 3.12 Heavy-Gage Sheet-Internal Temperature Control
  • Constant Environmental Temperature
  • The Constant Heat Flux Case
  • The Thickness Effect
  • Summary
  • 3.13 Equilibration
  • Convection Heating
  • Constant Heat Flux
  • Computed Equilibration Times
  • The W-L-F Equation
  • The Arrhenius Equation
  • Relating Shift Factors to Sheet Thickness
  • 3.14 Infrared-Transparent Polymers
  • 3.15 Computer-Aided Prediction of Sheet Temperature
  • The Radiant Boundary Condition
  • 3.16 Guidelines for Determining Heating Cycles
  • The Biot Number
  • Thin-Gage Guidelines
  • Heavy-Gage Guidelines
  • Intermediate-Gage Guidelines
  • 3.17 References
  • 4 Stretching the Sheet
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 The Stretching Concept
  • 4.3 Polymer Hot Strength
  • Standard Tensile Tests
  • Hot Tensile Tests
  • Hot Creep Tests
  • Other Stretching Tests
  • Temperature-Dependent Viscosity for Amorphous Polymers
  • Dynamic Mechanical Testing
  • 4.4 Stress-Strain-Rate of Strain-Theory
  • Elasticity-A Rationalization
  • Strain Energy Function
  • The Rivlin Form for the Strain Energy Function
  • The Ogden Form for the Strain Energy Function
  • Viscoelastic Models
  • 4.5 Available Stress-Strain Data.
  • Sensitivity of Models
  • 4.6 The Importance of Polymer Material Properties
  • 4.7 Practical Aspects of Stretching
  • Funnel Test
  • 4.8 Bursting Conditions
  • 4.9 Sheet Sag
  • Initial Sag
  • Tensile Sag
  • The Catenary Sag
  • Parabolic Sag
  • Relating Sag to Hot Sheet Strength
  • Sag-A Comment
  • 4.10 References
  • Appendix 4.1 Biaxial Stretching of an Elastic Membrane
  • 5 Cooling and Trimming the Part
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Overall Cooling Heat Balance
  • 5.3 Cooling the Formed Shape
  • 5.4 Steady State Heat Balance
  • Interfacial Resistance
  • Shape Factor
  • Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
  • 5.5 Cyclic Heat Balance
  • Cooling the Free Surface of the Sheet
  • Cooling Thin Sheet in Ambient Air
  • Transient Heat Removal From the Sheet
  • Quiescent Ambient Air
  • Moving Ambient Air
  • Cooling on Nonmetallic Molds
  • 5.6 Transient Heat Transfer During Sheet Cooling on the Mold Surface-Computer Models
  • Interfacial Air
  • 5.7 Shrinkage
  • Unconstrained Shrinkage
  • Constrained Shrinkage
  • 5.8 Trimming
  • Trimming Heavy-Gage Parts
  • Trimming Thin-Gage Parts
  • 5.9 Mechanics of Cutting
  • The Trim Region
  • Registering the Trim Site
  • The Nature of the Cut
  • Fracture Mechanics
  • Mechanical Chipping
  • Multiple-Edged Tool or Toothed Saw Performance
  • Abrasive Cut-Off Wheel
  • Toothless or Shear and Compression Cutting
  • Fracture Mechanics in Trimming
  • Nibbling
  • Brittleness, Orientation and Trim Temperature
  • 5.10 Steel Rule Die
  • Resharpening
  • Tabbing and Notching
  • 5.11 Punch and Die Trimming
  • Forged and Machined Dies
  • 5.12 Drilling
  • 5.13 Other Cutting Techniques
  • Thermal Cutting
  • Water Jet Cutting
  • 5.14 Trimming-A Summary
  • 5.15 References
  • 6 Thermoforming Molds
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Prototype Molds
  • Wood
  • Fiberboard
  • Plaster
  • Plastic
  • White Metal
  • Nickel
  • 6.3 Production Molds
  • Aluminum.
  • Steel
  • Other Metals
  • 6.4 Mold Coolant Channels
  • Mold Channel Flow
  • Expansion
  • Contraction
  • Sharp-Edged Orifice
  • 6.5 Vent Holes
  • Sizing Vacuum Systems-Steady State
  • Sizing Vacuum Systems-Dynamic
  • Solenoid Valve Flow Resistance
  • Vent Hole Resistance to Flow
  • Vent Hole Diameter
  • Other Types of Vents
  • Vent Hole Placement
  • 6.6 Surface Treatments
  • Surface Texture
  • 6.7 Plug Design Considerations
  • Plug Materials
  • Wood Plugs
  • Plastic Plugs
  • Metal Plugs
  • Plug Design Concepts
  • 6.8 Sheet Clamping
  • 6.9 Sag Bands and Sheet Supports
  • 6.10 Other Aspects of Mold Design
  • Undercuts
  • Encapsulation
  • Moving Elements
  • Stripper Plates/Bars
  • Mold Releases
  • Web Breakers, Catchers and Chasers
  • Moats, Dams and Double Steps
  • Chamfers and Radii
  • Prestretching Restraints
  • 6.11 Efficient Use of Sheet
  • Heavy-Gage Sheet
  • Thin-Gage Sheet
  • 6.12 References
  • 7 Parts Design
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Elements of Parts Design
  • Material Testing and Its Relevance to Part Performance
  • Philosophy of Parts Design
  • Minimizing the Amount of Sheet to be Reground
  • Rules for Part Layout on Heavy-Gage
  • Rules for Multiple Part Layout on Thin-Gage
  • Economics of Buying Sheet of Specific Size
  • 7.3 Prototyping as a Justification for Thermoforming
  • 7.4 Draw Ratio
  • Linear Draw Ratio
  • H:D
  • Rim and Lip Sheet for Female Cavities
  • Draw Ratio Usage-A Rationale
  • Mechanical Assists-Some Design Features
  • Preblowing or Inflation-Comments
  • Plug Assist-Comments
  • 7.5 Computer-Aided Design in Thermoforming
  • 7.6 Wall Thickness Prediction-A Justification
  • Geometric Element Analysis or GEA
  • Finite Element Analysis
  • General Comments on Plug Design
  • Plug Assist Analysis
  • Plug Design"Geometric Element Analysis
  • Plug Design"Finite Element Analysis
  • 7.7 Regrind.
  • Material Property Deterioration on Regrind
  • Property Value Loss-Experiment and Protocol
  • Cascading 100% Regrind
  • 7.8 General Guidelines for Part Design
  • General Tips
  • Process Tips
  • Mold Tips
  • Prestretch Tips
  • Part Design Tips
  • Rim and Edge Designs
  • Design-A Comment
  • 7.9 References
  • Appendix 7.I Draw Ratios for Truncated Cone
  • Appendix 7.II Mechanical Property Loss in Regrind
  • 8 Producing Sheet and Film
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Forming Thin Films
  • 8.3 Forming Sheet
  • Single-Screw Extrusion
  • Filtering the Polymer
  • Flow Improvement Devices
  • Pressure and Temperature in an Extruder
  • Sheet Die Concepts
  • Gage Thickness Monitoring and Control
  • Twin-Screw Extrusion
  • 8.4 Roll Stacks
  • 8.5 Sheet Trimming
  • 8.6 Take-OfT and Take-Up Rolls
  • 8.7 Residence Time and Residence Time Distribution Through Extruder and Die
  • 8.8 Drying
  • 8.9 Producing Biaxially Oriented Sheet
  • 8.10 Multilayer Sheet Formation
  • Coextrusion
  • Lamination
  • 8.11 Sheet Quality and Quality Control
  • Sheet Dimensions
  • Orientation
  • Sheet Squareness and Flatness
  • Moisture
  • Sheet Appearance
  • Annoyance Factors
  • Lamination
  • 8.12 References
  • 9 Newer Thermoforming Technologies
  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Thermoforming Crystallizing Polyethylene Terephthalate
  • PET Crystallinity
  • CPET Patents
  • Characterizing Polyethylene Terephthalate
  • The Effect of Temperature on Crystallization During Sheet Extrusion
  • Cooling CPET on Chill Rolls
  • Heating CPET in Roll-Fed Thermoformers
  • Forming the CPET Sheet
  • Cooling the CPET Formed Part
  • Trimming Parts from Web
  • Troubleshooting CPET Forming
  • 9.3 Pressure Forming
  • Thin Gage
  • Heavy Gage
  • 9.4 Forming Filled and Reinforced Polymers
  • 9.5 Laminated Sheet Thermoforming
  • Heating Multilayer Sheet
  • Forming Multilayer Sheet
  • 9.6 Twin-Sheet Thermoforming.

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